Iconic memory is the immediate, brief memory of a visual image that lasts milliseconds before fading. It is a type of sensory memory—the shortest-term element of the memory system.
Sensory memory acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. These inputs are accurately retained, but only for a very brief period. For example, the ability to momentarily recall what something looked or sounded like after just a second of observation is an example of sensory memory.
The sensory memory for visual stimuli is called iconic memory. For aural stimuli, it is known as echoic memory; for taste, gustatory memory; for smell, olfactory memory; and for touch, haptic memory. Echoic memory lasts two to four seconds, whereas iconic memory fades after just milliseconds.
Iconic memory is part of the visual memory system, which also includes visual short-term memory and visual long-term memory.
Examples of iconic memory
We encounter iconic memory constantly in everyday life, often without realizing it. These fleeting visual impressions help us process the world, even when we catch only a glimpse. Below are a few common examples that illustrate how iconic memory works in real situations.
- At night, you get up to have a drink of water and turn on the kitchen light. Almost instantly, the bulb burns out and leaves you in darkness—but you can briefly recall what the room looked like from the glimpse you managed to get (Cherry, 2023).
- Two girls are playing hide and seek. One of them, hiding in a closet, hears the other walking by. She jumps out and screams before diving back into the closet. The image of the girl jumping out is now an iconic memory in the mind of the second girl (YourDictionary Staff, 2022).
- You are on the highway when you pass a huge billboard. Your memory of what you saw on the billboard is an example of iconic memory (Perera, 2025).
In other words, your brain takes a mental snapshot of every image it sees and stores these afterimages in iconic memory—for just a few fleeting seconds.
A brief history of iconic memory
The roots of iconic memory can be traced back to ancient philosophy. Aristotle was among the first to observe and describe the persistence of a visual image after the object itself had disappeared. He even suggested that dreaming might involve such afterimages—brief traces of what the eyes had once seen (Allen, 1926).
Centuries later, during the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists grew curious about the trail of light created by swinging a glowing ember in the dark. This effect, known as visible persistence, fascinated researchers and prompted early investigations into how and why the eye retained visual information for a split second after the stimulus was gone (Coltheart, 1980).
A major leap came in 1960 when American cognitive psychologist George Sperling conducted a series of experiments to investigate this fleeting form of memory. His studies revealed that people could momentarily hold a large amount of visual information—more than they could report—indicating the presence of a brief, high-capacity memory store. He confirmed that both capacity and duration were key components of what he termed visual sensory memory (Sperling, 1960).
It was not until 1967 that the term iconic memory was formally introduced. Ulric Neisser, another leading cognitive psychologist, used the term to describe this fast-decaying visual memory store that briefly retains information in a visual “snapshot” after the stimulus disappears (Neisser, 1967).
Iconic memory and reading
The role of iconic memory in reading has been explored by several researchers, starting with a small but significant study by Riding and Pugh (1977). They tested 36 nine-year-old children on both image persistence in iconic memory and the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability, which measures reading fluency, accuracy, and comprehension.
Their results showed a clear relationship: all three aspects of reading performance were significantly linked to the duration of image persistence. Interestingly, both short- and long-term image persistence were associated with poorer reading outcomes. On average, children in these two groups scored 1.75 years lower in reading accuracy than children with moderate image persistence. This suggests that optimal visual persistence supports reading, while too little or too much may interfere with it.
Other studies support and expand on this idea. For example, Breitmeyer and Ganz (1976) explored how visual persistence interacts with visual masking—the phenomenon where one image interferes with the perception of another shown shortly after. They proposed that prolonged visual persistence could blur or overlap rapidly presented letters and words, making it harder to process text efficiently. This is particularly relevant for children learning to read, who need to quickly and cleanly process sequential visual inputs.
Further research by Di Lollo (1980) suggested that inefficient visual information processing, particularly in timing, may underlie certain reading difficulties. He theorized that if the brain does not “clear” each visual frame quickly enough, it can cause confusion or overload in tasks like reading, where letters and words appear in quick succession.
More recently, Hari and Renvall (2001) proposed a theory that ties slow neural processing and visual persistence to dyslexia. According to their “sluggish attentional shifting” hypothesis, individuals with dyslexia may struggle to disengage from one visual stimulus and shift attention to the next. This delay could explain common symptoms such as letter reversals, skipping words, or rereading lines—behaviors often observed in children with reading difficulties.
Taken together, these studies suggest that iconic memory and visual timing are not just passive background functions—they play an active role in shaping reading ability. A well-tuned visual system may “snapshot” and release information in just the right rhythm to support fluent, accurate reading.
Iconic memory and ADHD
Although visual memory has been studied in children with ADHD, iconic memory has received less attention in this population. Ahmadi et al. (2013) investigated the possibility of iconic memory impairment in children with ADHD by comparing their performance to that of children without the condition.
The experimental group consisted of thirty children, aged 6 to 9, who were referred to the Imam Hosein Clinic and diagnosed with ADHD. The comparison group included thirty children of the same age range without ADHD. Iconic memory was assessed using a standardized task designed to measure brief visual retention. The data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA.
The results showed that the mean iconic memory score of children with ADHD was significantly lower than that of children without ADHD, suggesting a potential impairment in this type of sensory memory.
Iconic memory and Alzheimer’s
Research suggests that diminished iconic memory may serve as an early indicator of increased risk for Alzheimer’s disease.
In a study by Lu and colleagues (2005), iconic memory was assessed in 16 individuals aged 65 to 99, all of whom had mild cognitive impairment (MCI). During the test, participants were briefly shown a computer screen displaying letters in various positions. After viewing the screen, they were asked to recall the position of each letter.
The researchers found that iconic memory faded more rapidly in those with mild cognitive impairment compared to both younger and cognitively healthy older adults. Many of the participants were expected to develop Alzheimer’s disease within the following ten years.
Improving iconic memory
Iconic memory is increasingly recognized as a crucial cognitive skill. Strengthening this skill can lead to meaningful improvements across various areas of life—from academic performance and learning to work productivity and even cognitive resilience in later years
The good news is that iconic memory can be improved with practice. Edublox’s Development Tutor is designed to do just that. We also offer live online tutoring for students with dyslexia and other learning challenges. Our students are based in the United States, Canada, Australia, and beyond.
Book a free consultation to discuss your child’s learning needs and explore how we can help.
Key takeaways
References for What Is Iconic Memory?
- Ahmadi, N., Goodarzi, M. A., Hadianfard, H., Mohamadi, N., Farid, D., Kholasehzadeh, G., Sakhvidi, M. N., & Hemyari, C. (2013). Comparing iconic memory in children with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 8(3), 131–137.
- Allen, F. (1926). The persistence of vision. American Journal of Physiological Optics, 7, 439–457.
- Breitmeyer, B. G., & Ganz, L. (1976). Implications of sustained and transient channels for theories of visual pattern masking, saccadic suppression, and information processing. Psychological Review, 83(1), 1–36.
- Cherry, K. (2023). What is iconic memory? Verywell Mind.
- Coltheart, M. (1980). Iconic memory and visible persistence. Perception & Psychophysics, 27(3), 183–228.
- Di Lollo, V. (1980). Temporal integration in visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 109(1), 75–97.
- Hari, R., & Renvall, H. (2001). Impaired processing of rapid stimulus sequences in dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5(12), 525–532.
- Lu, Z.-L., Neuse, J., Madigan, S., & Dosher, B. A. (2005). Fast decay of iconic memory in observers with mild cognitive impairments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(5), 1797–1802.
- McLeod, S. (2023). Iconic memory. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/iconic-memory.html
- Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
- Perera, A. (2025). Iconic memory: Definition & examples. SimplyPsychology.org.
- Riding, R. J., & Pugh, A. K. (1977). A cognitive style approach to the prediction of reading ability in nine‐year‐old children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 47(3), 285–290.
- Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 74(11), 1–29.
- YourDictionary Staff. (2022). Examples of iconic memory. YourDictionary.
- What Is Iconic Memory? was authored by Sue du Plessis (B.A. Hons Psychology; B.D.), an educational specialist with 30+ years of experience in the learning disabilities field.
- Edublox is proud to be a member of the Institute for the Advancement of Cognitive Education (IACE), an organization dedicated to improving learning through cognitive education and mediated learning approaches.
